The
history of the Internet starts in the 1950s and 1960s with the development of computers. This began with
point-to-point communication between
mainframe computers and
terminals, expanded to point-to-point connections between computers and then early research into
packet switching. Packet switched networks such as
ARPANET,
Mark I at
NPL in the UK,
CYCLADES,
Merit Network,
Tymnet, and
Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of
protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for
internetworking, where multiple separate networks could be joined together into a network of networks.
In 1982 the
Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was standardized and the concept of a world-wide network of fully interconnected TCP/IP networks called the Internet was introduced. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the
National Science Foundation (NSF) developed the
Computer Science Network (CSNET) and again in 1986 when
NSFNET provided access to
supercomputer sites in the United States from research and education organizations. Commercial
internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the late 1980s and 1990s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. The Internet was commercialized in 1995 when NSFNET was decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.
Since the mid-1990s the Internet has had a drastic impact on culture and commerce, including the rise of near instant communication by
electronic mail,
instant messaging,
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) "phone calls",
two-way interactive video calls, and the
World Wide Web with its
discussion forums,
blogs,
social networking, and
online shopping sites. The research and education community continues to develop and use advanced networks such as NSF's
very high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS),
Internet2, and
National LambdaRail. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online information and knowledge, commerce, entertainment and
social networking.
It is estimated that in 1993 the Internet carried only 1% of the information flowing through two-way
telecommunication, by 2000 this figure had grown to 51%, and by 2007 more than 97% of all telecommunicated information was carried over the Internet.
[1]
| Internet history timeline |
Early research and development:
Merging the networks and creating the Internet:
Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet:
Examples of popular Internet services:
|
Precursors
The Internet has precursors that date back to the 19th century, especially the
telegraph system, more than a century before the digital Internet became widely used in the second half of the 1990s. The concept of
data communication – transmitting data between two different places, connected via some kind of electromagnetic medium, such as radio or an electrical wire –
predates the introduction of the first computers. Such communication systems were typically limited to point to point communication between two end devices.
Telegraph systems and
telex machines can be considered early precursors of this kind of communication.
Early computers used the technology available at the time to allow communication between the central processing unit and remote terminals. As the technology evolved, new systems were devised to allow communication over longer distances (for terminals) or with higher speed (for interconnection of local devices) that were necessary for the
mainframe computer model. Using these technologies it was possible to exchange data (such as files) between remote computers. However, the point to point communication model was limited, as it did not allow for direct communication between any two arbitrary systems; a physical link was necessary. The technology was also deemed as inherently unsafe for strategic and military use, because there were no alternative paths for the communication in case of an enemy attack.
Three terminals and an ARPA
Main articles:
RAND and
ARPANETA fundamental pioneer in the call for a global network,
J. C. R. Licklider, articulated the ideas in his January 1960 paper,
Man-Computer Symbiosis .
"A network of such [computers], connected to one another by wide-band communication lines [which provided] the functions of present-day libraries together with anticipated advances in information storage and retrieval and [other] symbiotic functions."
In August 1962, Licklider and Welden Clark published the paper "On-Line Man Computer Communication", one of the first descriptions of a networked future.
In October 1962, Licklider was hired by
Jack Ruina as Director of the newly established
Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) within
DARPA, with a mandate to interconnect the
United States Department of Defense's main computers at Cheyenne Mountain, the Pentagon, and SAC HQ. There he formed an informal group within DARPA to further computer research. He began by writing memos describing a distributed network to the IPTO staff, whom he called "Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network". As part of the information processing office's role, three network terminals had been installed: one for
System Development Corporation in
Santa Monica, one for
Project Genie at the
University of California, Berkeley and one for the
Compatible Time-Sharing System project at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Licklider's identified need for inter-networking would be made obvious by the apparent waste of resources this caused.
"For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So if I was talking online with someone at S.D.C. and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley or M.I.T. about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them. [...] I said, it's obvious what to do (But I don't want to do it): If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go where you have interactive computing. That idea is the ARPAnet."
Although he left the IPTO in 1964, five years before the ARPANET went live, it was his vision of universal networking that provided the impetus that led his successors such as
Lawrence Roberts and
Robert Taylor to further the ARPANET development. Licklider later returned to lead the IPTO in 1973 for two years.
[4]
Packet switching
At the tip of the problem lay the issue of connecting separate physical networks to form one logical network. During the 1960s,
Paul Baran (
RAND Corporation), produced a study of survivable networks for the US military. Information transmitted across Baran's network would be divided into what he called 'message-blocks'. Independently,
Donald Davies (
National Physical Laboratory, UK), proposed and developed a similar network based on what he called packet-switching, the term that would ultimately be adopted.
Leonard Kleinrock (MIT) developed mathematical theory behind this technology. Packet-switching provides better bandwidth utilization and response times than the traditional circuit-switching technology used for telephony, particularly on resource-limited interconnection links.
[5]
Packet switching is a rapid store-and-forward networking design that divides messages up into arbitrary packets, with routing decisions made per-packet. Early networks used
message switched systems that required rigid routing structures prone to
single point of failure. This led Tommy Krash and Paul Baran's U.S. military funded research to focus on using message-blocks to include network redundancy,
[6] which in turn led to the widespread urban legend that the Internet was designed to resist nuclear attack.
[7][8]
Networks that led to the Internet
ARPANET
Promoted to the head of the information processing office at
DARPA, Robert Taylor intended to realize Licklider's ideas of an interconnected networking system. Bringing in
Larry Roberts from MIT, he initiated a project to build such a network. The first ARPANET link was established between the
University of California, Los Angeles and the
Stanford Research Institute on 22:30 hours on October 29, 1969.
"We set up a telephone connection between us and the guys at SRI ...", Kleinrock ... said in an interview: "We typed the L and we asked on the phone,
- "Do you see the L?"
- "Yes, we see the L," came the response.
- We typed the O, and we asked, "Do you see the O."
- "Yes, we see the O."
- Then we typed the G, and the system crashed ...
Yet a revolution had begun" ....[10]
By December 5, 1969, a 4-node network was connected by adding the
University of Utah and the
University of California, Santa Barbara. Building on ideas developed in
ALOHAnet, the ARPANET grew rapidly. By 1981, the number of hosts had grown to 213, with a new host being added approximately every twenty days.
[11][12]
ARPANET became the technical core of what would become the Internet, and a primary tool in developing the technologies used. ARPANET development was centered around the
Request for Comments (RFC) process, still used today for proposing and distributing Internet Protocols and Systems.
RFC 1, entitled "Host Software", was written by
Steve Crocker from the
University of California, Los Angeles, and published on April 7, 1969. These early years were documented in the 1972 film
Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing.
International collaborations on ARPANET were sparse. For various political reasons, European developers were concerned with developing the
X.25 networks. Notable exceptions were the
Norwegian Seismic Array (
NORSAR) in 1972, followed in 1973 by Sweden with satellite links to the
Tanum Earth Station and Peter Kirstein's research group in the UK, initially at the Institute of Computer Science, London University and later at
University College London.
[13]
NPL
In 1965,
Donald Davies of the
National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) proposed a national data network based on packet-switching. The proposal was not taken up nationally, but by 1970 he had designed and built the Mark I packet-switched network to meet the needs of the multidisciplinary laboratory and prove the technology under operational conditions.
[14] By 1976 12 computers and 75 terminal devices were attached and more were added until the network was replaced in 1986.
Merit Network
The
Merit Network[15] was formed in 1966 as the Michigan Educational Research Information Triad to explore computer networking between three of Michigan's public universities as a means to help the state's educational and economic development.
[16] With initial support from the
State of Michigan and the
National Science Foundation (NSF), the packet-switched network was first demonstrated in December 1971 when an interactive host to host connection was made between the
IBM mainframe computer systems at the
University of Michigan in
Ann Arbor and
Wayne State University in
Detroit.
[17] In October 1972 connections to the
CDC mainframe at
Michigan State University in
East Lansing completed the triad. Over the next several years in addition to host to host interactive connections the network was enhanced to support terminal to host connections, host to host batch connections (remote job submission, remote printing, batch file transfer), interactive file transfer, gateways to the
Tymnet and
Telenet public data networks,
X.25 host attachments, gateways to X.25 data networks,
Ethernet attached hosts, and eventually
TCP/IP and additional
public universities in Michigan join the network.
[17][18] All of this set the stage for Merit's role in the
NSFNET project starting in the mid-1980s.
CYCLADES
The
CYCLADES packet switching network was a French research network designed and directed by
Louis Pouzin. First demonstrated in 1973, it was developed to explore alternatives to the initial ARPANET design and to support network research generally. It was the first network to make the hosts responsible for the reliable delivery of data, rather than the network itself, using
unreliable datagrams and associated end-to-end protocol mechanisms.
[19][20]
X.25 and public data networks
Based on ARPA's research, packet switching network standards were developed by the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the form of X.25 and related standards. While using
packet switching, X.25 is built on the concept of virtual circuits emulating traditional telephone connections. In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for the SERCnet network between British academic and research sites, which later became
JANET. The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976.
[21]
The
British Post Office,
Western Union International and
Tymnet collaborated to create the first international packet switched network, referred to as the
International Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. This network grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981. By the 1990s it provided a worldwide networking infrastructure.
[22]
Unlike ARPANET, X.25 was commonly available for business use.
Telenet offered its Telemail electronic mail service, which was also targeted to enterprise use rather than the general email system of the ARPANET.
The first public dial-in networks used asynchronous
TTY terminal protocols to reach a concentrator operated in the public network. Some networks, such as
CompuServe, used X.25 to multiplex the terminal sessions into their packet-switched backbones, while others, such as
Tymnet, used proprietary protocols. In 1979,
CompuServe became the first service to offer
electronic mail capabilities and technical support to personal computer users. The company broke new ground again in 1980 as the first to offer
real-time chat with its
CB Simulator. Other major dial-in networks were
America Online (AOL) and
Prodigy that also provided communications, content, and entertainment features. Many
bulletin board system (BBS) networks also provided on-line access, such as
FidoNet which was popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them
hackers and
amateur radio operators.
[citation needed]
UUCP and Usenet
Main articles:
UUCP and
UsenetIn 1979, two students at
Duke University,
Tom Truscott and
Jim Ellis, came up with the idea of using simple
Bourne shell scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line
UUCP connection with nearby
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Following public release of the software, the mesh of UUCP hosts forwarding on the Usenet news rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would later be named, also created gateways and links between
FidoNet and dial-up BBS hosts. UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved, ability to use existing leased lines,
X.25 links or even
ARPANET connections, and the lack of strict use policies (commercial organizations who might provide bug fixes) compared to later networks like
CSnet and
Bitnet. All connects were local. By 1981 the number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984. –
Sublink Network, operating since 1987 and officially founded in Italy in 1989, based its interconnectivity upon UUCP to redistribute mail and news groups messages throughout its Italian nodes (about 100 at the time) owned both by private individuals and small companies.
Sublink Network represented possibly one of the first examples of the internet technology becoming progress through popular diffusion.
[23]
Merging the networks and creating the Internet (1973–90)
TCP/IP
Map of the
TCP/IP test network in February 1982
With so many different network methods, something was needed to unify them.
Robert E. Kahn of
DARPA and
ARPANET recruited
Vinton Cerf of
Stanford University to work with him on the problem. By 1973, they had soon worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common
internetwork protocol, and instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible. Cerf credits
Hubert Zimmerman, Gerard LeLann and
Louis Pouzin (designer of the
CYCLADES network) with important work on this design.
[24]
The specification of the resulting protocol,
RFC 675 – Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine, Network Working Group, December 1974, contains the first attested use of the term
internet, as a shorthand for
internetworking; later RFCs repeat this use, so the word started out as an
adjective rather than the
noun it is today.
With the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became possible to join almost any networks together, no matter what their characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. DARPA agreed to fund development of prototype software, and after several years of work, the first somewhat crude demonstration of a gateway between the
Packet Radio network in the SF Bay area and the ARPANET was conducted. On November 22, 1977
[25] a three network demonstration was conducted including the ARPANET, the Packet Radio Network and the Atlantic Packet Satellite network—all sponsored by DARPA. Stemming from the first specifications of TCP in 1974,
TCP/IP emerged in mid-late 1978 in nearly final form. By 1981, the associated standards were published as
RFCs 791, 792 and 793 and adopted for use. DARPA sponsored or encouraged the development of TCP/IP implementations for many operating systems and then scheduled a migration of all hosts on all of its packet networks to TCP/IP. On January 1, 1983, known as
flag day, TCP/IP protocols became the only approved protocol on the ARPANET, replacing the earlier
NCP protocol.
[26]
ARPANET to the federal wide area networks: MILNET, NSI, ESNet, CSNET, and NSFNET
Main articles:
ARPANET and
NSFNET
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BBN Technologies TCP/IP internet map early 1986
After the ARPANET had been up and running for several years, ARPA looked for another agency to hand off the network to; ARPA's primary mission was funding cutting edge research and development, not running a communications utility. Eventually, in July 1975, the network had been turned over to the
Defense Communications Agency, also part of the
Department of Defense. In 1983, the
U.S. military portion of the ARPANET was broken off as a separate network, the
MILNET. MILNET subsequently became the unclassified but military-only
NIPRNET, in parallel with the SECRET-level
SIPRNET and
JWICS for TOP SECRET and above. NIPRNET does have controlled security gateways to the public Internet.
The networks based on the ARPANET were government funded and therefore restricted to noncommercial uses such as research; unrelated commercial use was strictly forbidden. This initially restricted connections to military sites and universities. During the 1980s, the connections expanded to more educational institutions, and even to a growing number of companies such as
Digital Equipment Corporation and
Hewlett-Packard, which were participating in research projects or providing services to those who were.
Several other branches of the
U.S. government, the
National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA), the
National Science Foundation (NSF), and the
Department of Energy (DOE) became heavily involved in Internet research and started development of a successor to ARPANET. In the mid 1980s, all three of these branches developed the first Wide Area Networks based on TCP/IP. NASA developed the NASA Science Network, NSF developed CSNET and DOE evolved the Energy Sciences Network or ESNet.
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T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992
NASA developed the TCP/IP based NASA Science Network (NSN) in the mid 1980s, connecting space scientists to data and information stored anywhere in the world. In 1989, the
DECnet-based Space Physics Analysis Network (SPAN) and the TCP/IP-based NASA Science Network (NSN) were brought together at NASA Ames Research Center creating the first multiprotocol wide area network called the NASA Science Internet, or NSI. NSI was established to provide a totally integrated communications infrastructure to the NASA scientific community for the advancement of earth, space and life sciences. As a high-speed, multiprotocol, international network, NSI provided connectivity to over 20,000 scientists across all seven continents.
In 1981 NSF supported the development of the
Computer Science Network (CSNET). CSNET connected with ARPANET using TCP/IP, and ran TCP/IP over
X.25, but it also supported departments without sophisticated network connections, using automated dial-up mail exchange. Its experience with CSNET lead NSF to use TCP/IP when it created
NSFNET, a 56 kbit/s
backbone established in 1986, that connected the NSF supported
supercomputing centers and regional research and education networks in the United States.
[27] However, use of NSFNET was not limited to supercomputer users and the 56 kbit/s network quickly became overloaded. NSFNET was upgraded to 1.5 Mbit/s in 1988. The existence of NSFNET and the creation of
Federal Internet Exchanges (FIXes) allowed the ARPANET to be decommissioned in 1990. NSFNET was expanded and upgraded to 45 Mbit/s in 1991, and was decommissioned in 1995 when it was replaced by backbones operated by several commercial
Internet Service Providers.
Transition towards the Internet
The term "internet" was adopted in the first RFC published on the TCP protocol (
RFC 675:
[28] Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974) as an abbreviation of the term
internetworking and the two terms were used interchangeably. In general, an
internet was any network using TCP/IP. It was around the time when ARPANET was interlinked with
NSFNET in the late 1980s, that the term was used as the name of the network, Internet,
[29] being a large and global TCP/IP network.
As interest in widespread networking grew and new applications for it were developed, the Internet's technologies spread throughout the rest of the world. The network-agnostic approach in TCP/IP meant that it was easy to use any existing network infrastructure, such as the
IPSS X.25 network, to carry Internet traffic. In 1984, University College London replaced its transatlantic satellite links with TCP/IP over IPSS.
[30]
Many sites unable to link directly to the Internet started to create simple gateways to allow transfer of e-mail, at that time the most important application. Sites which only had intermittent connections used
UUCP or
FidoNet and relied on the gateways between these networks and the Internet. Some gateway services went beyond simple email peering, such as allowing access to
FTP sites via UUCP or e-mail.
Finally, the Internet's remaining centralized routing aspects were removed. The
EGP routing protocol was replaced by a new protocol, the
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). This turned the Internet into a meshed topology and moved away from the centric architecture which ARPANET had emphasized. In 1994,
Classless Inter-Domain Routing was introduced to support better conservation of address space which allowed use of
route aggregation to decrease the size of
routing tables.
[31]
TCP/IP goes global (1989–2000)
CERN, the European Internet, the link to the Pacific and beyond
Between 1984 and 1988
CERN began installation and operation of
TCP/IP to interconnect its major internal computer systems, workstations, PCs and an accelerator control system. CERN continued to operate a limited self-developed system CERNET internally and several incompatible (typically proprietary) network protocols externally. There was considerable resistance in Europe towards more widespread use of
TCP/IP and the CERN TCP/IP intranets remained isolated from the Internet until 1989.
In 1988 Daniel Karrenberg, from
Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in
Amsterdam, visited Ben Segal,
CERN's TCP/IP Coordinator, looking for advice about the transition of the European side of the UUCP Usenet network (much of which ran over X.25 links) over to TCP/IP. In 1987, Ben Segal had met with
Len Bosack from the then still small company
Cisco about purchasing some TCP/IP routers for CERN, and was able to give Karrenberg advice and forward him on to Cisco for the appropriate hardware. This expanded the European portion of the Internet across the existing UUCP networks, and in 1989 CERN opened its first external TCP/IP connections.
[32] This coincided with the creation of Réseaux IP Européens (
RIPE), initially a group of IP network administrators who met regularly to carry out co-ordination work together. Later, in 1992, RIPE was formally registered as a
cooperative in Amsterdam.
At the same time as the rise of internetworking in Europe, ad hoc networking to ARPA and in-between Australian universities formed, based on various technologies such as X.25 and
UUCPNet. These were limited in their connection to the global networks, due to the cost of making individual international UUCP dial-up or X.25 connections. In 1989, Australian universities joined the push towards using IP protocols to unify their networking infrastructures.
AARNet was formed in 1989 by the
Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee and provided a dedicated IP based network for Australia.
The Internet began to penetrate Asia in the late 1980s. Japan, which had built the UUCP-based network
JUNET in 1984, connected to
NSFNET in 1989. It hosted the annual meeting of the
Internet Society, INET'92, in
Kobe.
Singapore developed TECHNET in 1990, and
Thailand gained a global Internet connection between Chulalongkorn University and UUNET in 1992.
[33]
Global digital divide
While developed countries with technological infrastructures were joining the Internet, developing countries began to experience a
digital divide separating them from the Internet. On an essentially continental basis, they are building organizations for Internet resource administration and sharing operational experience, as more and more transmission facilities go into place.
Africa
At the beginning of the 1990s, African countries relied upon X.25
IPSS and 2400 baud modem UUCP links for international and internetwork computer communications.
In August 1995, InfoMail Uganda, Ltd., a privately held firm in Kampala now known as InfoCom, and NSN Network Services of Avon, Colorado, sold in 1997 and now known as Clear Channel Satellite, established Africa's first native TCP/IP high-speed satellite Internet services. The data connection was originally carried by a C-Band RSCC Russian satellite which connected InfoMail's Kampala offices directly to NSN's MAE-West point of presence using a private network from NSN's leased ground station in New Jersey. InfoCom's first satellite connection was just 64 kbit/s, serving a Sun host computer and twelve US Robotics dial-up modems.
In 1996 a
USAID funded project, the
Leland initiative, started work on developing full Internet connectivity for the continent.
Guinea, Mozambique,
Madagascar and
Rwanda gained
satellite earth stations in 1997, followed by
Côte d'Ivoire and
Benin in 1998.
Africa is building an Internet infrastructure.
AfriNIC, headquartered in
Mauritius, manages IP address allocation for the continent. As do the other Internet regions, there is an operational forum, the Internet Community of Operational Networking Specialists.
[34]
There are a wide range of programs both to provide high-performance transmission plant, and the western and southern coasts have undersea optical cable. High-speed cables join North Africa and the Horn of Africa to intercontinental cable systems. Undersea cable development is slower for East Africa; the original joint effort between
New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and the East Africa Submarine System (Eassy) has broken off and may become two efforts.
[35]
Asia and Oceania
The
Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), headquartered in Australia, manages IP address allocation for the continent. APNIC sponsors an operational forum, the Asia-Pacific Regional Internet Conference on Operational Technologies (APRICOT).
[36]
In 1991, the People's Republic of China saw its first
TCP/IP college network,
Tsinghua University's TUNET. The PRC went on to make its first global Internet connection in 1994, between the Beijing Electro-Spectrometer Collaboration and
Stanford University's Linear Accelerator Center. However, China went on to implement its own digital divide by implementing a country-wide
content filter.
[37]
Latin America
As with the other regions,
the Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) manages the IP address space and other resources for its area. LACNIC, headquartered in Uruguay, operates DNS root, reverse DNS, and other key services.
Opening the network to commerce
The interest in commercial use of the Internet became a hotly debated topic. Although commercial use was forbidden, the exact definition of commercial use could be unclear and subjective.
UUCPNet and the X.25 IPSS had no such restrictions, which would eventually see the official barring of UUCPNet use of
ARPANET and
NSFNET connections. Some UUCP links still remained connecting to these networks however, as administrators cast a blind eye to their operation.
During the late 1980s, the first
Internet service provider (ISP) companies were formed. Companies like
PSINet,
UUNET,
Netcom, and
Portal Software were formed to provide service to the regional research networks and provide alternate network access, UUCP-based email and
Usenet News to the public. The first commercial dialup ISP in the United States was
The World, opened in 1989.
[38]
In 1992, Congress passed the Scientific and Advanced-Technology Act,
42 U.S.C. § 1862(g), which allowed NSF to support access by the research and education communities to computer networks which were not used exclusively for research and education purposes, thus permitting NSFNET to interconnect with commercial networks.
[39][40] This caused controversy within the research and education community, who were concerned commercial use of the network might lead to an Internet that was less responsive to their needs, and within the community of commercial network providers, who felt that government subsidies were giving an unfair advantage to some organizations.
[41]
By 1990, ARPANET had been overtaken and replaced by newer networking technologies and the project came to a close. New network service providers including
PSINet,
Alternet, CERFNet, ANS CO+RE, and many others were offering network access to commercial customers.
NSFNET was no longer the de facto backbone and exchange point for Internet. The
Commercial Internet eXchange (CIX),
Metropolitan Area Exchanges (MAEs), and later
Network Access Points (NAPs) were becoming the primary interconnections between many networks. The final restrictions on carrying commercial traffic ended on April 30, 1995 when the National Science Foundation ended its sponsorship of the NSFNET Backbone Service and the service ended.
[42][43] NSF provided initial support for the NAPs and interim support to help the regional research and education networks transition to commercial ISPs. NSF also sponsored the
very high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS) which continued to provide support for the supercomputing centers and research and education in the United States.
[44]
Internet Engineering Task Force
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is a loosely self-organized group of volunteers who contribute to the engineering and evolution of Internet technologies. It is the principal body engaged in the development of new Internet standard specifications. Much of the IETF's work is done in Working Groups. It does not "run the Internet", despite what some people might mistakenly say. The IETF does make standards that are often adopted by Internet users, but it does not control, or even patrol, the Internet.
[45][46]
The IETF started in January 1986 as a quarterly meeting of U.S. government funded researchers. Non-government representatives were invited starting with the fourth IETF meeting in October 1986. The concept of Working Groups was introduced at the fifth IETF meeting in February 1987. The seventh IETF meeting in July 1987 was the first meeting with more than 100 attendees. In 1992, the
Internet Society, a professional membership society, was formed and IETF began to operate under it as an independent international standards body. The first IETF meeting outside of the United States was held in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, in July 1993. Today the IETF meets three times a year and attendnce is often about 1,300 people, but has been as high as 2,000 upon occasion. Typically one in three IETF meetings are held in Europe or Asia. The number of non-US attendees is roughly 50%, even at meetings held in the United States.
[45]
The IETF is unusual in that it exists as a collection of happenings, but is not a corporation and has no board of directors, no members, and no dues. The closest thing there is to being an IETF member is being on the IETF or a Working Group mailing list. IETF volunteers come from all over the world and from many different parts of the Internet community. The IETF works closely with and under the supervision of the
Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG)
[47] and the
Internet Architecture Board (IAB).
[48] The
Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) and the
Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG), peer activities to the IETF and IESG under the general supervision of the IAB, focus on longer term research issues.
[49][45]
Request for Comments (RFCs) are the main documentation for the work of the IAB, IESG, IETF, and IRTF.
RFC 1, "Host Software", was written by Steve Crocker at
UCLA in April 1969, well before the IETF was created. Originally they were technical memos documenting aspects of ARPANET development and were edited by the late
Jon Postel, the first
RFC Editor.
[45][50]
RFCs cover a wide range of information from proposed standards, draft standards, full standards, best practices, experimental protocols, history, and other informational topics.
[51] RFCs can be written by individuals or informal groups of individuals, but many are the product of a more formal Working Group. Drafts are submitted to the IESG either by individuals or by the Working Group Chair. An RFC Editor, appointed by the IAB, separate from IANA, and working in conjunction with the IESG, receives drafts from the IESG and edits, formats, and publishes them. Once an RFC is published, it is never revised. If the standard it describes changes or its information becomes obsolete, the revised standard or updated information will be re-published as a new RFC that "obsoletes" the original.
[45][50]
NIC, InterNIC, IANA and ICANN
The first central authority to coordinate the operation of the network was the
Network Information Centre (NIC) at
Stanford Research Institute (SRI) in
Menlo Park, California. In 1972, management of these issues was given to the newly created
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). In addition to his role as the RFC Editor,
Jon Postel worked as the manager of IANA until his death in 1998.
As the early ARPANET grew, hosts were referred to by names, and a HOSTS.TXT file would be distributed from
SRI International to each host on the network. As the network grew, this became cumbersome. A technical solution came in the form of the
Domain Name System, created by
Paul Mockapetris. The Defense Data Network—Network Information Center (DDN-NIC) at SRI handled all registration services, including the
top-level domains (TLDs) of
.mil,
.gov,
.edu,
.org,
.net,
.com and
.us,
root nameserver administration and Internet number assignments under a
United States Department of Defense contract.
[52] In 1991, the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) awarded the administration and maintenance of DDN-NIC (managed by SRI up until this point) to Government Systems, Inc., who subcontracted it to the small private-sector
Network Solutions, Inc.[53][54]
Since at this point in history most of the growth on the Internet was coming from non-military sources, it was decided that the
Department of Defense would no longer fund registration services outside of the .mil TLD. In 1993 the U.S.
National Science Foundation, after a competitive bidding process in 1992, created the
InterNIC to manage the allocations of addresses and management of the address databases, and awarded the contract to three organizations. Registration Services would be provided by
Network Solutions; Directory and Database Services would be provided by
AT&T; and Information Services would be provided by
General Atomics.
[55]
In 1998 both IANA and InterNIC were reorganized under the control of
ICANN, a California
non-profit corporation contracted by the
United States Department of Commerce to manage a number of Internet-related tasks. The role of operating the DNS system was privatized and opened up to competition, while the central management of name allocations would be awarded on a contract tender basis.
Globalization and the 21st century
Since the 1990s, the
Internet's governance and organization has been of global importance to commerce. The organizations which hold control of certain technical aspects of the Internet are both the successors of the old ARPANET oversight and the current decision-makers in the day-to-day technical aspects of the network. While formally recognized as the administrators of the network, their roles and their decisions are subject to international scrutiny and objections which limit them. These objections have led to the ICANN removing themselves from relationships with first the
University of Southern California in 2000,
[56] and finally in September 2009, gaining autonomy from the US government by the ending of its longstanding agreements, although some contractual obligations with the Department of Commerce continue until at least 2011.
[57][58][59] The history of the Internet will now be played out in many ways as a consequence of the ICANN organization.
In the role of forming standard associated with the Internet, the IETF continues to serve as the ad-hoc standards group. They continue to issue
Request for Comments numbered sequentially from
RFC 1 under the ARPANET project, for example, and the IETF precursor was the
GADS Task Force which was a group of US government-funded researchers in the 1980s. Many of the group's recent developments have been of global necessity, such as the
i18n working groups who develop things like
internationalized domain names. The
Internet Society has helped to fund the IETF, providing limited oversight.
Futurology: Beyond Earth and TCP/IP (2010 to present)
The first live Internet link into
low earth orbit was established on January 22, 2010 when astronaut T. J. Creamer posted the first unassisted update to his Twitter account from the
International Space Station, marking the extension of the Internet into space. (Astronauts at the ISS had used email and Twitter before, but these messages had been relayed to the ground through a NASA data link before being posted by a human proxy.) This personal Web access, which NASA calls the Crew Support LAN, uses the space station's high-speed
Ku band microwave link. To surf the Web, astronauts can use a station laptop computer to control a desktop computer on Earth, and they can talk to their families and friends on Earth using
Voice over IP equipment.
[60]
Communication with spacecraft beyond earth orbit has traditionally been over point-to-point links through the
Deep Space Network. Each such data link must be manually scheduled and configured. In the late 1990s NASA and Google began working on a new network protocol,
Delay-tolerant networking (DTN) which automates this process, allows networking of spaceborn transmission nodes, and takes the fact into account that spacecraft can temporarily lose contact because they move behind the Moon or planets, or because space "weather" disrupts the connection. Under such conditions, DTN retransmits data packages instead of dropping them, as the standard TCP/IP internet protocol does. NASA conducted the first field test of what it calls the "deep space internet" in November 2008.
[61] This network technology is supposed to enable missions that involve multiple spacecraft where reliable inter-vessel communication might take precedence over vessel-to-earth downlinks.
Use and culture
E-mail and Usenet
E-mail is often called the
killer application of the Internet. However, it actually predates the Internet and was a crucial tool in creating it. Email started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a
time-sharing mainframe computer to communicate. Although the history is unclear, among the first systems to have such a facility were
SDC's
Q32 and MIT's
CTSS.
[62]
The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the evolution of e-mail. There is one report
[63] indicating experimental inter-system e-mail transfers on it shortly after ARPANET's creation. In 1971
Ray Tomlinson created what was to become the standard Internet e-mail address format, using the
@ sign to separate user names from host names.
[64]
A number of protocols were developed to deliver e-mail among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as
UUCP and
IBM's
VNET e-mail system. E-mail could be passed this way between a number of networks, including
ARPANET,
BITNET and
NSFNET, as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP. See the
history of SMTP protocol.
In addition, UUCP allowed the publication of text files that could be read by many others. The News software developed by Steve Daniel and
Tom Truscott in 1979 was used to distribute news and bulletin board-like messages. This quickly grew into discussion groups, known as
newsgroups, on a wide range of topics. On ARPANET and NSFNET similar discussion groups would form via
mailing lists, discussing both technical issues and more culturally focused topics (such as science fiction, discussed on the
sflovers mailing list).
During the early years of the Internet, e-mail and similar mechanisms were also fundamental to allow people to access resources that were not available due to the absence of online connectivity. UUCP was often used to distribute files using the 'alt.binary' groups. Also,
FTP e-mail gateways allowed people that lived outside the US and Europe to download files using ftp commands written inside e-email messages. The file was encoded, broken in pieces and sent by e-mail; the receiver had to reassemble and decode it later, and it was the only way for people living overseas to download items such as the earlier Linux versions using the slow dial-up connections available at the time. After the popularization of the Web and the HTTP protocol such tools were slowly abandoned.
From gopher to the WWW
 |
| http://www.google.com.ph/imgres?q=internet+of+history&um=1&hl=tl&sa=N&biw=800&bih=408&tbm=isch&tbnid=1JPw4-nt3RMRjM:&imgrefurl=http://www.spicytec.com/2010/09/history-of-internet.html&docid=qybsiMh0J_mpIM&imgurl=https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLiaj3ebhN596-t2LoCQzqZCzYy2s7PnGT_l5aR2GeAr4gxEjBvSnstC1nN5IgS3Ycwgl-PuPbaLbC46NKQ1VhV58VbudPaYB8v4Z8pUbAunF04xXDvAbN1VGqZu9fMebNVaYnzAOsGsrU/s640/history-of-the-internet-450.jpg&w=450&h=351&ei=zpzNTpX6Hab-iQKB8szbCw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=517&vpy=174&dur=1019&hovh=73&hovw=93&tx=108&ty=122&sig=118334756654306956193&page=5&tbnh=73&tbnw=93&start=43&ndsp=12&ved=1t:429,r:4,s:43 |
As the Internet grew through the 1980s and early 1990s, many people realized the increasing need to be able to find and organize files and information. Projects such as
Gopher,
WAIS, and the FTP Archive list attempted to create ways to organize distributed data. Unfortunately, these projects fell short in being able to accommodate all the existing data types and in being able to grow without bottlenecks.
[citation needed]
One of the most promising
user interface paradigms during this period was
hypertext. The technology had been inspired by
Vannevar Bush's "
Memex"
[65] and developed through
Ted Nelson's research on
Project Xanadu and
Douglas Engelbart's research on
NLS.
[66] Many small self-contained hypertext systems had been created before, such as Apple Computer's
HyperCard (1987). Gopher became the first commonly-used hypertext interface to the Internet. While Gopher menu items were examples of hypertext, they were not commonly perceived in that way.
In 1989, while working at
CERN,
Tim Berners-Lee invented a network-based implementation of the hypertext concept. By releasing his invention to public use, he ensured the technology would become widespread.
[67] For his work in developing the World Wide Web, Berners-Lee received the
Millennium technology prize in 2004.
[68] One early popular web browser, modeled after
HyperCard, was
ViolaWWW.
A potential turning point for the World Wide Web began with the introduction
[69] of the
Mosaic web browser[70] in 1993, a graphical browser developed by a team at the
National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (NCSA-UIUC), led by
Marc Andreessen. Funding for Mosaic came from the
High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a funding program initiated by the
High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991 also known as the
Gore Bill.
[71] Indeed, Mosaic's graphical interface soon became more popular than Gopher, which at the time was primarily text-based, and the WWW became the preferred interface for accessing the Internet. (Gore's reference to his role in "creating the Internet", however, was ridiculed in his presidential election campaign. See the full article
Al Gore and information technology).
Mosaic was eventually superseded in 1994 by Andreessen's
Netscape Navigator, which replaced Mosaic as the world's most popular browser. While it held this title for some time, eventually competition from
Internet Explorer and a variety of other browsers almost completely displaced it. Another important event held on January 11, 1994, was
The Superhighway Summit at
UCLA's Royce Hall. This was the "first public conference bringing together all of the major industry, government and academic leaders in the field [and] also began the national dialogue about the
Information Superhighway and its implications."
[72]
24 Hours in Cyberspace, "the largest one-day online event" (February 8, 1996) up to that date, took place on the then-active website,
cyber24.com.[73][74] It was headed by photographer
Rick Smolan.
[75] A photographic exhibition was unveiled at the
Smithsonian Institution's
National Museum of American History on January 23, 1997, featuring 70 photos from the project.
[76]
Search engines
Even before the World Wide Web, there were search engines that attempted to organize the Internet. The first of these was the
Archie search engine from McGill University in 1990, followed in 1991 by
WAIS and Gopher. All three of those systems predated the invention of the World Wide Web but all continued to index the Web and the rest of the Internet for several years after the Web appeared. There are still Gopher servers as of 2006, although there are a great many more web servers.
As the Web grew,
search engines and
Web directories were created to track pages on the Web and allow people to find things. The first full-text Web search engine was
WebCrawler in 1994. Before WebCrawler, only Web page titles were searched. Another early search engine,
Lycos, was created in 1993 as a university project, and was the first to achieve commercial success. During the late 1990s, both Web directories and Web search engines were popular—
Yahoo! (founded 1994) and
Altavista (founded 1995) were the respective industry leaders. By August 2001, the directory model had begun to give way to search engines, tracking the rise of
Google (founded 1998), which had developed new approaches to
relevancy ranking. Directory features, while still commonly available, became after-thoughts to search engines.
Database size, which had been a significant marketing feature through the early 2000s, was similarly displaced by emphasis on relevancy ranking, the methods by which search engines attempt to sort the best results first. Relevancy ranking first became a major issue circa 1996, when it became apparent that it was impractical to review full lists of results. Consequently,
algorithms for relevancy ranking have continuously improved. Google's
PageRank method for ordering the results has received the most press, but all major search engines continually refine their ranking methodologies with a view toward improving the ordering of results. As of 2006, search engine rankings are more important than ever, so much so that an industry has developed ("
search engine optimizers", or "SEO") to help web-developers improve their search ranking, and an entire body of
case law has developed around matters that affect search engine rankings, such as use of
trademarks in
metatags. The sale of search rankings by some search engines has also created controversy among librarians and consumer advocates.
[77]
On June 3, 2009,
Microsoft launched its new search engine,
Bing.
[78] The following month Microsoft and
Yahoo! announced a deal in which Bing would power
Yahoo! Search.
[79]
Dot-com bubble
Main article:
Dot-com bubbleSuddenly the low price of reaching millions worldwide, and the possibility of selling to or hearing from those people at the same moment when they were reached, promised to overturn established business dogma in advertising,
mail-order sales,
customer relationship management, and many more areas. The web was a new
killer app—it could bring together unrelated buyers and sellers in seamless and low-cost ways. Visionaries around the world developed new business models, and ran to their nearest
venture capitalist. While some of the new entrepreneurs had experience in business and economics, the majority were simply people with ideas, and did not manage the capital influx prudently. Additionally, many dot-com business plans were predicated on the assumption that by using the Internet, they would bypass the distribution channels of existing businesses and therefore not have to compete with them; when the established businesses with strong existing brands developed their own Internet presence, these hopes were shattered, and the newcomers were left attempting to break into markets dominated by larger, more established businesses. Many did not have the ability to do so.
The dot-com bubble burst in March 2000, with the technology heavy
NASDAQ Composite index peaking at 5,048.62 on March 10
[80] (5,132.52 intraday), more than double its value just a year before. By 2001, the bubble's deflation was running full speed. A majority of the dot-coms had ceased trading, after having burnt through their
venture capital and IPO capital, often without ever making a
profit. But despite this, the Internet continues to grow, driven by commerce, ever greater amounts of online information and knowledge and social networking.
Online population forecast
A study conducted by JupiterResearch anticipates that a 38 percent increase in the number of people with online access will mean that, by 2011, 22 percent of the Earth's population will surf the Internet regularly. The report says 1.1 billion people have regular Web access. For the study, JupiterResearch defined online users as people who regularly access the Internet from dedicated Internet-access devices, which exclude cellular telephones.
[81]
Mobile phones and the Internet
The first mobile phone with Internet connectivity was the
Nokia 9000 Communicator, launched in Finland in 1996. The viability of Internet services access on mobile phones was limited until prices came down from that model and network providers started to develop systems and services conveniently accessible on phones.
NTT DoCoMo in Japan launched the first mobile Internet service,
i-mode, in 1999 and this is considered the birth of the mobile phone Internet services. In 2001 the mobile phone email system by
Research in Motion for their
BlackBerry product was launched in America. To make efficient use of the small screen and
tiny keypad and one-handed operation typical of mobile phones, a specific document and networking model was created for mobile devices, the
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP). Most mobile device Internet services operate using WAP. The growth of mobile phone services was initially a primarily Asian phenomenon with Japan, South Korea and Taiwan all soon finding the majority of their Internet users accessing resources by phone rather than by PC.
[citation needed] Developing countries followed, with India, South Africa, Kenya, Philippines, and Pakistan all reporting that the majority of their domestic users accessed the Internet from a mobile phone rather than a PC. The European and North American use of the Internet was influenced by a large installed base of personal computers, and the growth of mobile phone Internet access was more gradual, but had reached national penetration levels of 20–30% in most Western countries.
[citation needed] The cross-over occurred in 2008, when more Internet access devices were mobile phones than personal computers. In many parts of the developing world, the ratio is as much as 10 mobile phone users to one PC user.
[82]
Historiography
Some concerns have been raised over the
historiography of the Internet's development. Specifically that it is hard to find documentation of much of the Internet's development, for several reasons, including a lack of centralized documentation for much of the early developments that led to the Internet.
"The Arpanet period is somewhat well documented because the corporation in charge – BBN – left a physical record. Moving into the
NSFNET era, it became an extraordinarily decentralized process. The record exists in people's basements, in closets. [...] So much of what happened was done verbally and on the basis of individual trust."
See also
References
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- ^ Licklider and the Universal Network
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- ^ Ronda Hauben (2001). From the ARPANET to the Internet. http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt. Retrieved May 28, 2009.
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- ^ A Chronicle of Merit's Early History, John Mulcahy, 1989, Merit Network, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- ^ a b Merit Network Timeline: 1970–1979, Merit Network, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- ^ Merit Network Timeline: 1980–1989, Merit Network, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- ^ "A Technical History of CYCLADES", Technical Histories of the Internet & other Network Protocols, Computer Science Department, University of Texas Austin
- ^ "The Cyclades Experience: Results and Impacts", Zimmermann, H., Proc. IFIP'77 Congress, Toronto, August 1977, pp. 465–469
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- ^ Jon Postel, NCP/TCP Transition Plan, RFC 801
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- ^ USC/ICANN Transition Agreement
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- ^ U.S. Eases Grip Over Web Body: Move Addresses Criticisms as Internet Usage Becomes More Global Christopher Rhoads, October 2, 2009
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- ^ NASA Extends the World Wide Web Out Into Space. NASA media advisory M10-012, January 22, 2010. Archived
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- ^ "Vice President Al Gore's ENIAC Anniversary Speech". Cs.washington.edu. February 14, 1996. http://www.cs.washington.edu/homes/lazowska/faculty.lecture/innovation/gore.html. Retrieved May 28, 2009.
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- ^ Stross, Randall, Planet Google: One Company's Audacious Plan to Organize Everything We Know, New York : Free Press, September 2008. ISBN 978-1-4165-4691-7
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- ^ "Microsoft and Yahoo seal web deal", BBC Mobile News, July 29, 2009.
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- ^ Friedhelm Hillebrand, ed. (2002): "GSM and UMTS, The Creation of Global Mobile Communications", John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-470-84322-5
- ^ "An Internet Pioneer Ponders the Next Revolution". Illuminating the net's Dark Ages. August 23, 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/6959034.stm. Retrieved February 26, 2008.
Further reading
- Abbate, Janet. Inventing the Internet, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999.
- Bemer, Bob, "A History of Source Concepts for the Internet/Web"
- Campbell-Kelly, Martin; Aspray, William. Computer: A History of the Information Machine. New York: BasicBooks, 1996.
- Clark, D. (1988). "The Design Philosophy of the DARPA Internet Protocols". SIGCOMM '88 Symposium proceedings on Communications architectures and protocols (ACM): 106–114. doi:10.1145/52324.52336. http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~jrex/teaching/spring2005/reading/clark88.pdf. Retrieved 2011-10-16.
- Graham, Ian S. The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1995.
- Krol, Ed. Hitchhiker's Guide to the Internet, 1987.
- Krol, Ed. Whole Internet User's Guide and Catalog. O'Reilly & Associates, 1992.
- Scientific American Special Issue on Communications, Computers, and Networks, September 1991.
External links
- Thomas Greene, Larry James Landweber, George Strawn (2003). A Brief History of NSF and the Internet. National Science Foundation. http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/03/fsnsf_internet.htm. Retrieved May 28, 2009.
- Robert H Zakon. "Hobbes' Internet Timeline v10.1". http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/. Retrieved July 23, 2010.
- "Principal Figures in the Development of the Internet and the World Wide Web". University of North Carolina. http://www.unc.edu/depts/jomc/academics/dri/pioneers2d.html. Retrieved July 3, 2006.
- "Internet History Timeline". Computer History Museum. http://www.computerhistory.org/exhibits/internet_history/. Retrieved November 25, 2005.
- Marcus Kazmierczak (September 24, 1997). "Internet History". Archived from the original on October 31, 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20051031200142/http://www.mkaz.com/ebeab/history/. Retrieved November 25, 2005.
- Harri K. Salminen. "History of the Internet". Heureka Science Center, Finland. http://www.nic.funet.fi/index/FUNET/history/internet/en/etusivu-en.html. Retrieved June 11, 2008.
- "Histories of the Internet". Internet Society. http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/. Retrieved December 1, 2007.
- "Living Internet". http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii.htm. Retrieved January 1, 2009. Internet History with input from many of the people who helped invent the Internet
- "Voice of America: Overhearing the Internet" , Robert Wright, The New Republic, September 13, 1993
- "Cybertelecom :: Internet History", focusing on the governmental, legal, and policy history of the Internet
- "History of the Internet", an animated documentary from 2009 explaining the inventions from time-sharing to filesharing, from Arpanet to Internet
- "The Roads and Crossroads of Internet History", by Gregory R. Gromov
- The History of the Internet According to Itself: A Synthesis of Online Internet Histories Available at the Turn of the Century, Steven E. Opfer, 1999
- "How It All Started" (slides), Tim Berners-Lee, W3C, December 2004
- "A Little History of the World Wide Web: from 1945 to 1995", Dan Connolly, W3C, 2000
- "The World Wide Web: Past, Present and Future", Tim Berners-Lee, August 1996
